Central Works Essay 31

Cross-Cultural Collaboration: Whose Culture Is It, Anyway?

Deborah S. Bosley wrote this essay in 1993. She had previously written many articles about collaborative work and considered herself very knowledgeable about all aspects of the subject. Then two of her international students taught her something new when they discussed some cross-cultural issues on their evaluation forms after working on a collaborative project. Cross-cultural collaboration is something she had never even thought about. At the time, there wasn't much research done on it. This article was written after this introduction to cross-cultural issues in collaboration. She believes it is still valid today.

Definitions and Caveats

The common belief is that everyone learns the same, no matter what their race or backgrounds. Research in multicultural communication shows that differences do exist.

Without taking into account the context of a person's culture, it is impossible to understand the problems they might face in a collaborative group.

Cultural Differences in Behavior

Euro-North American culture places emphasis on individuality. Competitiveness is taught to children rather than collaboration, like in many other cultures. The success and achievements of Euro-North Americans are measured individually, even in group settings. The idea is that this competitiveness increases the productivity of the group. Other cultures believe this causes problems and could decrease productivity. Euro-North Americans praise those who make their own decisions, while those in communalistic cultures, such as many Asian cultures, believe that it is disrespectful to put your decisions above those of the group.

There are differences in oral and written communication for members of different cultures. Examples of oral differences lie in the use of context, comfortableness with silence, and exaggeration. Written differences include the organization and structure of texts.

Strategies for Internationalizing Collaborative Groups

Groups should recognize and take into consideration any cross-cultural differences that lie within their group right from the beginning. Group members can learn from one another and learn to appreciate each member's strengths and differences. Every member can gain positive effects from cross-cultural communication.

The Shape of Text to Come: The Texture of Print on Screens

In 1993, when author Stephen A. Berhnardt wrote this article, the World Wide Web was in its infancy and computer use was just starting to become common in the workplace. The author describes it as a “speculative piece” that tried to describe the transition from paper text to on-screen text.

Bernhardt considers what constitutes a well-formed text, how readers interact with text, and how text differs in print and on screen. He notes that paper documents have provided a starting point for both rhetoric and structure of on-screen text. In this paper, Bernhardt examines a number of features that are unique to electronic text.

Situationally Embedded Text

Books and other paper texts have different attributes than on-screen text. These documents are portable. Their use is typically independent of the reader’s physical environment; in fact, they allow the reader to escape by portraying a completely different situation.

Screen-based text, on the other hand, is integrated with other actions. It is typically task-based: readers use the text for researching, writing, editing, tracking information, sharing and collaboration. “Reading,” Bernhardt says, “is not the primary goal.”

Interactive Text

On-screen text allows readers to physically interact with the text, manipulating and transforming it through the use of a mouse, and controlling the outcomes. Research shows that this type of participatory learning leads to better retention of text material. Unlike writers of print materials, “writers of on-screen text can force interaction, making it necessary for the reader to do something in order to get to the next step.”

Functionally Mapped Text

Text of any kind functions to inform, direct, question or pose situations for readers. The rhetorical purpose is apparent through the use of signals such as visual cues (layout, typography) and syntactic cues (grammatical structure, certain phrases). In addition to these signals, electronic text can incorporate buttons, icons, hyperlinks and menus that provide specific functions. Writers of on-screen text, in addition to creating content, must map these cues to their actions.

Layout conventions help readers locate information. For example, the periphery of the screen contains the most action. Bernhardt says, “It is on the edge that we recognize where we are, what we can do, where we can go, or how we can get out.”

Modular Text

Texts are composed of other texts: books have chapters; magazines have articles, sidebars, and tables of contents; and encyclopedias have individual modules. Because of the limitations of computer screen dimensions, electronic text requires screen-sized chunks of highly localized text. There are problems with cohesion due to screen boundaries; “the break from one screen to next presents a larger gap than that from one page to the next.” If scrolling is required, readers may choose to skip text below the screen view. Long sections of text cause readers to lose their place or become disoriented.

Readers pay more attention to idea groupings, or modules (no bigger than a computer screen). Information modules provide an advantage to writers as well, making it easy to rearrange information for different purposes or audiences.

Hierarchically Embedded Text

In addition to encapsulating information in easy-to-read chunks, modularity helps readers identify importance of text. Semantic cues tell reader that information is mainline, peripheral, supportive, or explanatory. Supporting information is present but not necessarily visible unless the reader follows links or help topics to additional information.

This hierarchy allows users to choose what to read. Unlike books, which must be read in a linear fashion, on-screen text allows readers to jump back and forth between multiple open files. The use of a cascading design displays high-level information but allows access to more detail for each topic

Navigable Text

All text must be navigated by readers. Paper text “signposts” include the table of contents, index, headings, headers, and page numbers. Features such as these give readers a sense of control. These navigation strategies do not work well for electronic text, however.

On-screen text does not allow readers to “size up” the whole document to assess how much information it contains, or how much they have already read. This is complicated by multiple layers of embedded text. Book-like options such as menus, indexes, pagination, and back/forward arrows can be combined with links, buttons, and icons, as well as graphical browsers with an explodable index. Electronic navigation cues and landmarks are becoming more standardized.

Spacious Text

Print text is limited by physical factors such as space, size and weight of the document. Writers must conform to these limitations when composing text. On-screen text, on the other hand, allows unlimited information and unconstrained design, and writers gain freedom from “economic constraints of inscription.”

Graphically Rich Text

Many graphical features are common to print and on-screen text: white space, space breaks, margins; bulleted or numbered lists; fonts, headings, boldface, and italics. Electronic text has more graphic potential, such as zooming, animation, video, sound, and three-dimensional views; and text-graphic display and integration.

Customizable, Publishable Text

On-screen text is easy to create and produce. Software editing/collaboration programs offer in-text markup with accept/reject features, “sound bites” for verbal commentary, and user profiles for customizable displays. Traditional document production costs have shifted from paper, printing, and binding, to authoring software and specialized hardware. The “fluidity” of on-screen text makes multiple versions and updates easier than ever

Conclusion

On-screen text is real-time and interactive, a fluid, changeable medium that allows users to control the final product more easily than with print text. Readers are developing new strategies for reading and writing, and have increasing comfort with on-screen navigation. The computer has become the dominant medium for presenting and working with texts.

Campbell, Chapter 10, But That’s Not the Way We’ve Always Done It.

Writers of policies and procedures will always face resistance and negative reactions to the finished product. Change can be difficult and can cause fear in employees. This chapter offers suggestions on how to lessen the resistance you undoubtedly will experience.

Campbell states, “The single most important thing you can do to combat negativity is to involve users upfront. Don’t end with involvement. Start with it.” One of the steps included in the original planning process was to talk to people and to get their input. Cooperation can be increased by involving people in the process from the beginning, even though it can be time-consuming. Even for those who still remain negative, by communicating with them early in the process, at least you will know who they are. “Forewarned is forearmed.”

As the writing process evolves, continue to gather input. Update potential users on the status, ask for opinions, and keep talking. Take the time to truly listen and to explain. Avoid portraying the message, “Trust us; we know best.” It will help to improve the final product and may also help to convert some of the resisters.

Final implementation will be less of a shock to users who have been included and educated throughout the process. For those who are unhappy, it is helpful listen to and acknowledge their feelings in a respectful way. Encourage questions. Let people vent. Enlist the help of those who are supportive of the changes. They can help to explain their positive reaction to those who are not happy. Some people will never be accepting of the change. It will be necessary to let them know that they are still expected to follow the change or to accept the consequences of non-compliance.

Grace periods can help to quell some resistance. The gradual transition period gives people time to adjust to the initial notice and allows them to ease in to the changes required. Reinforcing the message by repetition—in email, by posting it on a message board, by discussing it in staff meetings—will help to transition employees to the changes.

When the policy or procedure will be unpopular, “preempting” and “taking the heat” are two steps that will help you to deliver the bad news. “Preempting” involves anticipating objections and presenting them to the group before they have a chance to do so. By doing this, you can then follow up with a rebuttal response that addresses the objection and “steal(s) the objector’s thunder.” Patiently listening to objections and negative reactions, or “taking the heat,” can diffuse resistance as well by convincing users that you are willing to acknowledge negative reactions and to accept responsibility for them.

The chapter discusses common resistance factors towards policies and procedures and provides suggestions for dealing with them. For example, a policy might come across as being negative, unfair, pointless, or restrictive. It can be helpful to avoid negative words and to try to present things with a more positive spin. “Don’t take extended breaks” could also be written as “you must observe the scheduled break times.” Trying to see things from the users’ point of view, making sure that the organizations words and actions are consistent, and helping users to see how the policy might benefit them are ways to counteract some of the resistance factors.

And what if you strongly disagree with a policy or procedure that you have been asked to write? It can be valuable to acknowledge your own concerns, to even write them down. Then focus on the circumstances that are being addressed by the policy and the reasons behind them. Write these down as well. But ultimately, as a professional, you will need to abide by the policy, as others will. When writing the policy, give it your best effort and when implemented, help others to overcome their resistance.

When the process is over, take some time to review the policy or procedure. Is it working? Has anything changed? The process is not static, but is ongoing; things will eventually change, sooner, sometimes, rather than later.

(Team 5: Karen and Keeley)

Barker, Chapter 11, "Laying Out Pages and Screens"

Document layouts basically fall into two kinds of activities: designing page layout and designing type.

Designing page layout is determining the best arrangement of words and images on a page or screen to achieve maximum usability.

Designing type is determining the proper font, size, and style of characters as well as determining the format for tables, lists, and paragraphs.

Constraints compare the design process: constraints of user types and experience, of the user’s problem-solving techniques, and of the documenter’s resources. Account for these constraints in any intelligent design of page and screen layout to achieve the design goals.

The Goals of Page and Screen Layout
The goals of layout are to allow the user to overcome the design problem. First, the layout should meet the dynamic needs with a static document. The document should support task orientation by helping the user perform information-related tasks efficiently and productively. Secondly, good page and screen layout should support overall task orientation. Finally, the layout should accommodate the visual needs of the user, the need to learn, and do it through images rather than words.

Create Page Grids
The user analysis creates a kind of model, telling the characteristics of the users in a way that allows you to design documents to help the user perform meaningful, automated work. The model of your page design first emerges as a page grid. Page grids define communication space by drawing invisible “fences” around the areas of a page. A page grid acts like a scaffold onto which you put text and graphics.

To design a page well, you need to know the following about grid lines and the other parts of a page grid:
• Grid lines: Lines drawn where the page and column margins would fall.
• Margins: Areas of actual space between the text and paper’s edge.
• Columns: Spaces between the grid lines marking columns.
• Gutters: Space between columns.
• White space: Space, inside the margins, where no text or pictures may go.
• Baseline: Grid line at the bottom of the text and graphics area that defines the bottom margin.

Define the Page Grid Using Styles
When you have identified a grid for your pages and screens, you’ve identified the basic pattern you will follow throughout your manuals and online help systems. Some pages will look different from the grid pages (e.g., table of contents and indexes). Once you’ve decided on the grid for your pages, you should identify the styles you want to use to set up the pages. Table 11.1 on page 355 of Barker shows many different rules of styles for page and screen components.

Two important things to note about the guidelines are that the screen presentations don’t identify margins in a one-column format because the margins are automatically set by the variable-sized window in which the help screen appears. Also, the font for the body text is a serif font for printed documentation and a non-serif font for screen presentation because serif is more easily read on a screen.

Draw Thumbnail Sketches
Use a thumbnail sketch as part of your planning effort for your publications department or to experiment with different plans for the style manual. Barker suggests picking a page that you think exhibits good page design. Barker then lists an exercise beginning on page 356 to sketch out an example page and compare them.

Barker also lists the following guidelines for sketching the thumbnail:
• Text: Draw straight lines for all body text lines. Use a ruler, or learn to draw sketch-straight lines (where you put your pencil at a starting point and draw short, straight strokes to the ending point).
• Graphics: Draw all the graphics using shadows, abstract sketches, and circles and lines.
• Headings: Headings usually appear in larger fonts than body text, so draw them as shaded rectangles, again using their relative size in the original as your guide.
• Rules, boxes, other features: You may need to draw rectangles around rules to give them the same value on your sketch as they have on the page. Make sure to include all the graphics and text in the headers and footers.

Tips for Drawing Thumbnail Sketches
1. Drawing a thumbnail sketch may take 10-20 minutes. Take your time and make it accurate.
2. Keep the page items in proportion while trying to include everything that is in the original.
3. Keep the values of darkness, density, lightness, and spaciousness the same in your sketch as in the original.

Set Up Pages and Styles in Your Word Processor
Once you have identified your styles, set them up in your word processor or desktop publishing program. You handle the specifications for page in two ways: styles for the text and page setup. Depending on what you use, you could do these together or separately.

Setting styles saves you time for two reasons:
• You can change the styles later, and you don’t have to change each instance of a certain text.
• Setting up styles ensures consistency.

Determine the Layout of Help Documents
The number of fonts that work on screen is different than the number of fonts that work on paper. There are many different elements to consider when selecting layout elements. See Table 11.2 on page 360 for a list of layout elements for page and screen consideration.

Discussion
Designing Communication Spaces
The documenter needs to decide two important things: the degree of modularity pages need, and the degree of structure they need. These two elements are what determines the overall look of the communication space, regardless of the pattern of columns and words you chose.

Degree of Modularity
Modularity means breaking information into chunks of text and graphic units and fitting them onto a one- or two-page spread. Using this format, you would use the one-task-per-page idea, and include at least one image per task.

Modularity and Pages
Ask yourself if the communication space contains all the information the user needs to perform the task and understand the concepts in the task to determining the degree of modularity for a page or screen. Keeping tasks self-contained increase modularity. Follow these steps to ensure modularity:
• Repeat background information where necessary.
• Repeat screens when necessary.
• Include orienting information about the relationship of a task to other tasks.
• Keep all relevant steps on the same page.
• Minimize cross-references.

Modularity and Screens
Note that modularity has less and less to do with online help systems. Because of the physical restraints of a page, you have to put all the necessary information in one space. Use expandable text and rollovers to assist in getting the important information to your users.

Degree of Structure
Structure in page design means that we place the information on the page according to patterns, with certain kinds of information only in certain places. This process reserves certin areas of the page or screen for certain kinds of information. The structured page has areas for headings, certain areas for overviews, and others for screens. Highly structured pages use bulleted lists, tables of commands, and indented margins for steps.

Elements to consider when looking at a structured approach:
• Rules: Various lengths and thicknesses help the user tell the reading area from the heading or scanning area.
• White space: Helps the user focus on elements of the page such as graphics without having to process impinging information.
• Bullets: Help the user identify the kind and organization of information at a glance.
• Chunks: Help the user identify reading information in overviews and elaborations.

How to Look at Pages and Screens
Try to develop an eye for the following elements of page design:
• Page density: Comparing the pages of one manual to another.
• Balance: Compare how one manual balances white space and text space with one another.
• Legibility: Compare the ease of reading of the type font and style among manuals which you think read clearly.

Common Page Designs
Many designs used in software manuals incorporate the concepts of modularity and structure to varying degrees. There are two common formats that are used, the two-column and the one-column.

Two-Column Format
Most of today’s software manuals display a two-column format (example on page 366). This format allows the reader to distinguish readily between guidance information and support information. The two-column format works best with guidance-level documentation: procedures, step-by-step, installation, getting started. The two-column format uses more space per information unit than dense one-column format.

One-Column Format
The one-column formatted page (example on page 368) arranges both graphics and text in the middle of the page. In some ways, the one-column format helps a writer modularize a document because it makes it easy to keep task information together in a linear form. Writers have used the one-column, full-page format for tutorials, which tend to have longer passages of prose, because they think it is easier to cram a lot of information on one page. This, unfortunately, leads to this page not being read because there is too much information on the page and readers skip over it.

The Elements of Page Design
Pages consist of the arrangement of many complex elements. By understanding the following elements, you will understand the building blocks of pages.

The Left Margin
Text and graphics align according to the left margin.

Columns
Columns can be easily created using many different kinds of software. There are two kinds of columns, newspaper and table. Newspaper columns continue text from the bottom of one column to the top of the next column on the same page. Table columns continue text from the bottom of one column to the top of the the same column on the next page. This is the best column format for manuals, particularly when one column contains graphics and the other text.

Headers and Footers
Headers and footers orients users through sections, pages, and topics without taking up a lot of space. Consider users' needs when selecting header and footer styles and content.

Icons and Diagrams
Icons, diagrams, and pictures are some of the visual elements that make paper or online texts easier to use. They help users to easily locate critical information or to navigate different sections. A well-designed page uses ample icons and diagrams that are emphasized with appropriate white space.

Screen Shots
Screen shots provide users with useful visual references. There are three kinds: full screen, partial screen (emphasizing only part of a screen), and menus. Selecting the appropriate size and labels is important for designing a useful screen shot.

Rules
Rules help designers line up columns, emphasize sections of information, and define headers and footers. They vary in width, length, thickness, tone, color, and style depending upon users' needs.

Pagination
There are two kinds of pagination: sequential and modular. Sequential pagination uses the same sequence of numbers from the beginning to the end of the entire manual. This is especially useful when users refer to a series of books, such as a supervisor's guide and a user's guide. Modular pagination involves starting each chapter in the same book with page one. This may be useful for guides that contain distinct contents in different chapters so that individual chapters can be reprinted while maintaining pagination. Whatever pagination is used, designers must ensure that pagination for special sections, such as the header, or special chapters, such as the index, helps orient the user.

Common Screen Design

Windows Screen Format
This format includes a non-scrolling section and a one-column design with links to related topics (or two-column design that places the related topics on the right). Designers can also add links that open pop-up windows to explain functions.

Man(ual) Pages Format
Man pages format is simpler, containing a heading, a title at the top, and a navigation area with a prompt.

The Elements of Screen Design

A Changeable Space
Designing screens can be a challenge because users can change how content is viewed. Because users can resize and scroll through screens, designers should keep several things in mind. Forget line length: only left and indent margins usually need to be configured because users can resize screens. Avoid lots of scrolling: shorten text length to no more than two screens or users may lose their place. Indicate the extent of the topic: if text continues from one screen to another, use a "More" button or pagination to help orient users.

Multiple Window Management
If designers include help windows in their design, they should follow several guidelines. Don't obliterate the users's work: configure the help window to cover only part of the screen so user's can still find the original window. Avoid window clutter: minimize the number of help windows that open or place help windows above the application window so it is easy to refer to. Give the user control over frames: make it obvious to users whether help windows will close automatically with a click or keystroke, or whether windows will close automatically after a set amount of time.

Color
Designers should use appropriate color to highlight important sections, information, or tools.

Graphics
Graphics should be simple for easy on-screen viewing and printing.

Screen Grids
Grids on computer screens different from grids on paper in several ways. Narrower margins are used on computer screens because the monitor helps define the viewing space. Less indentation is needed on screen to save space and because fonts are usually larger on screen. Define the grid for single pages only: binding and two-page layouts aren't a concern with computer screens. Use rules sparingly: topics tend to be better defined, so rules are less necessary.

Line Spacing
In general, single space lines and use large font size in headings.

Designing Type
Designers should understand the tools available (such as software) and the way users recognize words to design the appropriate type for manuals.

Helping People Recognize Words
Besides users' technical proficiency and subject knowledge, it's important to understand that users are visually oriented. This means that the shape of words and the letters they contain can influence readability. Serif fonts have letters with end strokes that almost connect to the letters that follow, while sans serif fonts don't have those connectors. Serif fonts look more like cursive writing while sans serif fonts look more like printed writing. Serifs can encourage eye movement across the page, especially with smaller letter sizes.

Design Advice
Choose a font the user knows well for the body text.
With smaller-sized type, choose font styles with well-defined ascenders and descenders.
Avoid using italics or all caps for long strings of text because letters can be harder to distinguish and understand.
Keep heading short.
Use serif for body text (where comprehension is most important) and sans serif for headings (where larger sizes make comprehension easier).

Building Patterns with Type
Create a consistent pattern using cuing techniques, headings, and rules when designing manuals. This helps users locate important information and navigate through sections more easily.

More Design Advice
If designers want to change fonts, sizes, styles, they should do it in this order: style, size, then font. Change only what is necessary to emphasize the text. Limit the levels of information to two (three at the most) so if you need to make changes, you'll have to do it fewer times. Limit cuing devices to three or four for a cleaner look. Use a consistent design in the manual and related documents. Use software to establish a consistent paragraph style that will carry throughout the document.

The Idea of Body Text
The body text is the dominant feature of the document, and size and style can be varied, but not font. The most common body text fonts are 10- or 12-point serif. Still, it is important to consider the page size (which should correspond to the font size), media (screens may limit the font options or some programs may offer special fonts), and user expectations (such as what may be viewed in other manuals).

Non-Body Text
Body text can be modified in style, font, or size to create headings, warnings, or notes.

Headings
Headings should direct users to important information through special spacing or size. Heading design, however, should be consistent across levels. Headings should generally be larger, sans serif, and bold for emphasis. Alternately, headings can be differentiated using small, medium, and large sizes of the same font.

Hints, Notes, and Cautions
Hints, notes, and cautions are special "aides" that draw the user's eye through color, icons, and spacing. Because they are generally included in the body, they are the same style, size, and font as the body text. However, they can be emphasized by changing the size or style of the heading preceding the information.

User Input, Computer Output
When it is necessary for users to type in text and for that text to be displayed, this text usually appears different from the body text. Courier has been commonly used for input because it looks like typewriter text, which may serve as a prompt to users. For output, Helvetica is a common font because it may look like the body text but is still distinguishable by its smaller size.

Tables and Lists
While the text of tables and lists is generally the same as body text, the heading styles may be changed for emphasis. Other ways to distinguish tables and lists are indentation, column layout, and rules.

See pages 380 to 381 for the Glossary and Checklist.

Submitted by Team 1

Summary of Chapter 11: We Haven’t Used that Procedure in Years

This chapter is devoted to answer the questions that arise when procedures need to be revised. Companies are expected (and legally held accountable) to keep their organizational records up-to-date; specifically, when a company holds ISO 9000 standard certification, it is a requirement to have all policies, procedures and manuals up-to-date and to have only the active copy “active” i.e. being used.

Additionally, the unusable state of a procedure makes it useless and redundant as well as obsolete. Usually, the writer can receive best feedback about the use of a procedure from the end-user. The writer should also keep in mind that policies and procedures require a regular update and maintenance to remain usable and accurate.

When should a procedure be revised?
According to Campbell, there are two methods:
1. Regular review and revision
2. As-needed review and revision

A company should evaluate, which method would be more appropriate and beneficial. Often, ISO certifications require a regularly scheduled review and revision, but this can be difficult for companies that have limited resources and overwhelming if all documentation is updated all at once. A solution to this can be a rolling review that staggers documents in groups. As-needed reviews are risky, because they are more vulnerable to procrastination and justification: after all, how can you measure need? Campbell provides some pointers on how to implement as-needed reviews: the company can revise a procedure after accumulated changes, significant content changes or after observing some clues (such as: complaints, questions, errors etc.) that reveal the procedure’s complacency.

Of course, there are times when a revision is not required; before rushing into the next revision, the company should evaluate whether there are other factors that contribute to the lack of following a procedure. This could be lack of training or lack of management support to enforce that process, or people may simply take time to accept change.

Once the decision has been made that the procedure needs to be revised, there are several factors to consider:
· How much should be revised? Revision Content
· How should the writer revise? Revision Process
· How to communicate and clarify the changes? Revision Awareness

The revised content can be communicated by highlighting the added/revised content, using clear wording in the transmittal document and finally, summarizing the changes that were made. This is also important when maintaining ISO certification.

After the document has been revised and all changes are highlighted and summarized, the revised procedure can be published. In order to ensure that all users take responsibility in application of all changes, a system should be in place that prevents user excuses, such as “I never knew about these changes.” A simple sign-off roster/revision index/action memo for all employees works well. That way, each user can be held accountable for having read the changes and knowing about them.

Finally, Campbell provides some helpful templates and tip sheets in the Appendix for Chapter 11.

Thanks for reading our summary: Lance and Vanda

Barker Chapter 10: Designing for Task Orientation

This chapter presents tools and techniques for responding to characteristics of software users.

Guidelines for designing documentation

Create a table of contents

Match the user analysis with information design strategies

Acknowledge production constraints in document design

Test and review the design

Follow a design process for online help

1. Create a Table of Contents

Think in the sequence of stages that begin with goals and end with solutions. The prior user analysis with suggest overall goals. The outline embodies your most innovative and user oriented ideas. Decide on the overall organization of the manual and how to design so the user can easily find information.

2. Match the user analysis with information design strategies

When designing for different groups consider the following:

· Navigational aids- Navigational aids make sure the user groups get to the information pertinent to their needs. These could include special statements, directing users to the sections of the documents, list of figures and tables, headers and footers.

· Scenarios- Scenarios give each group a role model.

· Icons- Icons identify information for each group.

· Metaphors-Metaphors make implicit relationships to the workplace so users can see and feel the document is familiar to them.

Design for a specific program issues:

· Job performance aids cover technically or repetitive tasks.

· Background information to meet special needs.

· Special forms can help users collect information in the field for later inclusion in the document.

Meet the user’s task needs

Illustrations, layout design, examples of usage, special document sections, and tips.

Meet the user’s information needs:

This requires you to understand how users manage information within a job setting. There are several strategies you can use:

· Explanation so the user understands their use and importance.

· Provide examples that illustrate workplace uses.

· Meet efficiency goals/command summaries for efficiency by providing things like shortcuts, macros, etc.

· Identify functions that relate to information management and communication work

Match the user’s computer experience –

There are different types of users like: novice, experienced, and expert.

Enhance the user’s subject-matter background:

Take advantage of the user’s knowledge of the subjects by doing the following:

· Special glossary of background terms

· Index entries linking background terminology to program functions

· Special booklets/sections describing background concepts

· Elaborate examples with explanations of key concepts

Leverage the user’s workplace

Try to incorporate the following to help new users:

Getting help from coworkers

Suggestions for support groups

Descriptions of network use

Meet the user’s learning preferences

Learning preferences are connected to the choice of media as well as design.

Instructor learning – For instructors use lesson plans, overheads, etc. For the learners use workbook, note pages, diskette.

Manual learning – Tutorial manual, list of learning objectives, samples files

Computer-based learning – Programmed computer-based training modules, etc.

Meet the user’s usage pattern

First determine which category is most appropriate: Regular usage, or Intermittent usage, or Casual usage.

3. Acknowledge production constraints in document design

Decide on what design features you would like to have and what you can afford to have. You need to know you limitations before planning. Some constraints are: Writing tools, Production tools, Human resources, Budget, and External considerations. See table 10.3 for further explanation of the constraints.

4. Test and review the design

In this phase you evaluate through reviews by clients and sponsors and test problematic areas in a lab or field test. To test your design you can follow these steps:

a. Mock up pages with access elements on them and field test them.

b. Consult the chapter on testing for was to do quick usability tests.

c. Decide on a design based on logic and experimentation.

5. Follow a design process for online help

The design of online help should parallel the process of designing for print; however the process must be adjusted to accommodate: technical differences between print documentation and online documentation, and the different features of online document versus pages.

Identify and list the online help topics

Topic is an identifiable body of usable information associated with a user activity.

The 7setps program identifies the following kinds of topics.

About – offers introductory information of the program

Module – describes the modules of an interface

Action – describes situation in which a user would use a part of the interface to achieve a workplace end

Problem – describes solutions to problems/bugs/errors

Questions – describe questions the user might ask

Task – identifies the workplace activities the program supports

Update – describe new features of a program or application to the users

User group – describe the types of users with similar ways of using the program.

The two types of automatic topics are:

“Best practices” – when the user has performed an operation that is potentially complicated and would need more guidance

Corrective – topics open when a user has reached a dead end

Determine the interconnected elements

Those interconnections among topics based on user activities make up the heart of a help system because they allow the users to follow familiar patters of activity.

Decide what design features to use

Design features are the software capabilities you can build into a help system and the electronic interface elements of a help system. Some features of the help systems are: Hypertext links, buttons, hot areas, browse controller, pop-ups, context sensitivity, and system affordances. See table 10.4 for detailed description of each.

Here are several areas to consider when designing for task orientation:

Accommodating groups of users

You must constantly consider the degrees of experience among the groups of users. You may have to write more than one manual to accommodate the different needs and expectations of the users.

Pay attention to users psychological differences as experienced users may have more patience and confidence with the program .Novices have less experience with manuals and online help and do not know the conventions of documentation thus can get lost looking for things in the wrong section. As a documents designer use a variety of features (glossaries, cuing, graphics etc) to help novices and get them on track.

Consider the roles based on computer experience and professional activities such as installers, operators, evaluators, decision makers and so on. Each of categories of users needs to use different functions of the program and need different level of support. Writer needs to use different cuing to make sure each user’s type can find appropriate section easily.

Matching the user’s problem-solving methods

There are several issues to consider:

• No one carefully reads more then 2 sentences at a time.
• Solution: Make paragraphs short. Include tables and lists whenever possible.
• Most users begin using the table of contents before they ready the manual.
• Solution: Make table of contents complete. Use abbreviated, complete and chapter-by-chapter table of contents.
• Most users go to the manual or help only after they have failed to perform tasks.
• Solution: Describe error recovery clearly and completely.
• Most readers do not read instruction first.
• Solution: Replace introduction with information about users needs, special documents features, or helpful routing information.
• Most readers do not read any sections in its entirety.
• Solution: Tell users which section to go for particular tasks/problems. Make sure all descriptions of tasks are complete for performing task. Repeat important information.

The Design Guide for Printed Documentation

Navigation

Navigational aids are elements of a document that tell the reader where to go next for what kind of information. Make sure you include navigating as organizing feature only after you have examined your user’s tasks carefully.

Cross-reference points to other sections of the chapters containing related information. Try to include the cross references and information that the users need at the point they need it.

Running header and footers - This may include: chapter and section names and numbers, book title, graphic cues and icons, task names, and color to indicate sections.

Layering – refers to having two versions of information on the page at once to satisfy more then one type of reader. Things like keyboard shortcuts on the side, use of columns for instructions, etc. You might have elaborate steps for novice user and abbreviated version of the steps for the experienced user.

Headings – All manual use heading, and all users expect them. Use short phrases to indicate contents of the section such as “Setting Margins” or “Saving a file”. Avoid making headings too short- “Margins”/”Save”. Headings also create visual part of the pages.

Advance organizers – tell the users the structure and organization of the information that will follow. Remember to put advance organizers in front of the information they reflect, use them consistently, make sure they relate to user’s work/tasks, and keep them short.

Document overview – Users need to be introduced to document’s setup and how to use it to find information. You can include things like: audience, content, organization, scope, and navigational information.

Parallel structures – There are two benefits of parallelism in software manuals. First parallelism reassures the user that the writer has sorted out the important information. Second, it creates pattern of expectations so the reader learns how to use the document.

Cuing – This refers to the technique of including visual patterns to make a certain kind of information memorable. You can cue with icons or rules, fonts, and caps.

Indexing and tables of contents – The two most important navigational and tracking devices in any manual. The table of contents describes the content of the document from a task perspective. The index provides a meeting place of all users of a program.

List of figures and tables – They make up the main element in the usability of a document and help users see quickly if they can find an example of a screen in a figure.

List of screens – This list works when you have program with easily recognizable screens. This list of screens should appear early in the manual or in the primary index screen of a help system.

Interrelated examples – These are examples when you follow the same example from one procedure to another. Doing so builds continuity into you document design.

Solutions to the design problem for online documentation

Here you face the same objectives as you do with the print document which is getting the user the right information.

Non-scrolling regions – regions that appear at the top of the screen and stay there while the user scrolls through the procedure or topic. This feature has advantage over the print document because user does not loose sight of the document.

Expanded text – Sometimes called “stretch text” allows you to embed more details into a topic so the user can click on the expanded text link to view details.

Keyword and whole text search – refer to the ability of a help system to electronically find topics and the user types into a keyword search box.

Indexes – shows an alphabetical view of all the important topics and terminology used in a help system. The author has to identify some terms for index to ignore when presenting the list to the user.

Links and Jumps – in a help system allow users to go directly from one topic to related topic. Here online system has definite advantage because user does not have to turn pages and can link topics and get back and forth between topics.

Pop-ups – provide a way to handle glossaries in an online system. User can click on the term in the topic window to see the definition.

Context sensitivity – With a print manual, the user goes through a chain of events between identifying a problem and finding the solution. With the online help system, user goes directly from a problem with a screen or a field to an appropriate help topic containing a solution. However the limitation is that you can’t guarantee that the user will get right information.

Histories – allow the users to trace their steps, save histories and refer back to them. This is advantage over using print material.

Browse Sequences – When you identify a series of related topics you cab easily include the relationship in the form of browse sequence. The system displays forward and backward arrows when moving from topic to topic using browse sequence which cannot be done as easily with the print material

Bookmarks/Annotation – With a book the user can easily mark a place in the book and then return to it as well as mark on the pages. Newer help systems also have incorporated bookmark options as well as annotation features.

The Politics of the Interface: Power and its Exercise in Electronic Contact Zones

We need to be technology critics as well as technology users…

Selfe, C.L., & Selfe, R.J. (1994). The politics of the interface: Power and its exercise in electronic contact zones. College Composition and Communication, 45(4), 480-504.

The borders of social power are so commonplace in society that they often remain invisible. Selfe and Selfe explore computer interfaces as a border that represents dominant tendencies in American culture, proposing that consumers should not only be technology users but also technology critics. They wrote this article in order to identify some of the effects of domination and colonialism associated with computer use to “establish a new discursive territory within which to understand the relationships between technology and education” (p. 482).

Computers have been used in the hopes to democratize the classroom and may be less systematically oppressive. However, this is a dangerous assumption—the belief that computers and networks are “the same for all players.” Rather, Selfe and Selfe evaluate and present that computer interfaces value “monoculturalism, capitalism, and phallologic thinking” (p. 486). Interfaces include icons orientated to the ideals of the white, male, middle- and upper-class professional (i.e. white pointer hand). English is also the default language of interfaces and many commercial items only come in English.

These primary interfaces do not provide evidence of different cultures, races, linguistic groups, or economic statuses. Interfaces exclude and marginalize Other perspectives, and in doing so, enact a gesture of colonialism. Interfaces, therefore, operate as a grand narrative where users must abandon their “own culture or gender to acknowledge the dominance of other groups” (p. 494).

The authors propose that users need to recognize these cultural and linguistic borders to reveal power differentials. Interfaces must also be revised to reflect a range of cultural, linguistic, and ideological perspectives to represent the “underrepresented”—non-white cultures, non-English speakers, and women. Users cannot be mere objective observers of these barriers.

Overall, Selfe and Selfe illustrate the computer as a gendered, classed, and racist technology in this critical essay.

Group #2: Jennifer and Gary