Essay 9

The Social Perspective and Professional Communication: Diversity and Directions in Research

Charlotte Thralls and Nancy Roundy Blyler
This article was written in 1993 for Professional Communication: The Social Perspective. Thralls states that it gives newcomers in the field a sense of the “enormous impact” “the social turn” (quotes in original) had on professional communication research. It also provides a starting point for comparing research trends in the early phases of “the social turn” with the later evolution of those trends (125).

With the rejection of positivism, where knowledge is a direct apprehension of reality, reality is now unknowable apart from language. Language and culture are intimately related; and the importance of the communal and local are emphasized, leading to the centrality of socially mediated meaning and interpretation. Current theoretical movements at this time included poststructuralism, radical feminism, and the philosophy and sociology of science.

The purposes of this article are twofold:
1) Describe the three different and sometimes competing theoretical approaches within the social perspective (social constructionist, ideologic, and paralogic hermeneutic),
2) Use the three approaches to conceptualize important patterns and differences emerging in studies of professional writing.

Each of the three approaches are examined using the four concepts of community, knowledge and consensus, discourse conventions, and collaboration.

Social Constructionist
According to this approach, knowledge is not “individual, internal, and mental” (127), but rather is social in nature. It focuses on community and views “communal entities as the sources of knowledge maintained by consensual agreement; as the repositories of discourse conventions by which communities are defined and shaped; and as the bodies to which nonmembers must—through collaboration—be acculturated” (131).

Community
The concept of community is central to the social constructionist theory because communal entities are sources of knowledge. There is a presupposition of like-mindedness on the part of community members, although even within this approach there is disagreement over the definition of community. Central to this part of the approach is the idea that communities shape discourse and vice versa. Researchers have been particularly interested in the normative aspect of community, particularly on the way these regulate discursive practices.

Knowledge and Consensus
According to Bruffee, one of the theorists most cited in the portion on the social constructionist approach, knowledge results from a community’s consensus about what it will call true; Bruffee terms this consensual knowledge socially-justified belief. This concept has influenced research in the field because it has shifted attention away from universals ensuring truth to the means by which beliefs are incorporated into a community’s knowledge store.

Discourse Conventions
According to Bruffee, communities are constituted by the language its members use. Discourse conventions are indices of community member ship and have a regulatory effect. The simplest form research in this area has taken has been to study the conventions that identify various communities. Because discourse conventions are so closely tied to communities and member ship in them, constructionists have stressed how nonmembers can internalize community norms and language to acquire membership; Bruffee focused specifically on collaboration as a means to this end.

Collaboration
According to constructionists, collaboration the social process implicit in all writing as well as a pedagogic tool for teaching writing; writing is a “communal and collaborative act” (130). Research in this area has focused on how collaborative writing projects can assist in the acculturation of students to their academic disciplines and professions.


The Ideologic Approach
With this approach comes the thought of power and responsibilities of indivduals to challenge established institutional order. Scholars taking this approach wish to extend social inquiry to include the ideologic frameworks that shape language practices with thought and identifies within professional communities.

Community
The ideologic likes to think that academic and corporate communities are powerful mechanisms of reproductive ideoogy. Some feminists critics scrutinize the way academic and business communities reproduce sexism and hierarchical social arrangements. One last thought is a leftist critique of community is leading researchers to a more self-conscious examination of the larger cultural.

Knowledge and Consensus
An ideologic critique on consensus has important implications for research and pedagogy in professional communication. Knowledge and its means of production are distributed in an unequal, exclusionary social order and embedded in hierarchical relations of power (some interests are suppressed while others comminute). The ideologic approach also redirects the analysis of discourse conventions because, if consensus is the production apparatus for reproducing communal values, discourse conventions reflect and reify that consensus.

Discourse and Conventions
The ideologic identifies discourse conventions as complex semiotic systems or symbolic orders that signify and sustain the relations of power implicit in consensual knowledge. There is one more worry and that is neutral discourse elements can mask ideology.

Collaboration
Scholars argue that collaboration should demonstrate to students not merely that knowledge is socially constructed and collaborative activities should also "change the social character of production". Collaborative pedagogy, the power might be distributed more equitably among students in collaborative groups and between students and teachers in technical and business writing classrooms.

Summary of Ideologic Approach
The ideologic approach is one of the ages and has been around for many years, just different ways. There will always be the fine line between language practices in the professional communities. Once they figure out the balance of power in all fields it will benefit all. Wells study says it all with an ideologic approach to knowlege and consensus is directing attention away for constructionists' notions of this concept as indicating agreement among community members and toward the relations ofpower that authorize some knowledge claims and exclude othiers.

The Paralogic Hermeneutic Approach
The name of this approach comes from concern with the interpretive or hermeneutic act and as other approaches it is concerned with social negotiation of meaning. The paralogic hermeneutic theorists claim that all interpretation and understanding come out of communicative interaction (Thralls & Blyler, 1993, p. 136).

This approach is fundamentally different from the social constructionist and ideologic approaches discussed previously.

Community
The social constructionists look at the community members as people who share commonalities in their beliefs and language use, as well as interpret and attach meanings to their experiences within interactions of the community. The argument of paralogic hermeneutic theorists is that despite belonging to certain communities, we have a variety of beliefs and statements that we regard as true besides the ones that are preferred in our communities and we also understand others who live in different communities.

The paralogic hermeneutic theorists redefine the concept of community by brining focus on the interaction experiences of each communicant. Emphasis is primarily on communication and the meaning it creates for each participant.

Knowledge and Consensus
The paralogic hermeneutic theorists also disagree with social constructionists’ understanding of knowledge and consensus. According to the paralogic hermeneutics approach, each participant engages in so called hermeneutic guessing until they arrive at the understating of other interactant’s values, beliefs and language use. During the hermeneutic guessing, interactants use concepts of “prior” and “passing”; “prior” is assumption about the interactant and his/her beliefs, values and language-use, and “passing” is adjustment to prior assumptions as they continue the interaction. Consensus in this case is when two interactants share passing theory; however, the consensus is always temporary and will need readjustment next time they communicate.

Discourse Conventions
The paralogic hermeneutic approach again opposes the other two theories on how we communicate. “Paralogic theorists claim that the discourse conventions derive meaning from their use by communicants (Kent, 1989)” (Thralls & Blyler, 1993, p. 138). Essentially according to this theory, meaning is in people, not in words.

Communicators try to match their beliefs about the language use to the beliefs of others, share those beliefs and reach agreement. Paralogic theorists state that discourse conventions should never be equated with effective communication, but only used in combination with valuable background knowledge and perceptive hermeneutic guessing in each interaction.

Collaboration
The interpretive or hermeneutic act is fundamentally collaborative; therefore, the paralogic theorists agree that the interpretive act should be the focus in writing pedagogy. The paralogic hermeneutic approach suggests to look at the writing as an accommodative activity and to transform the classroom into a one-on-one student/teacher collaborative environment. This further suggests rethinking the purpose of many collaborative activities presently used in a writing classroom. Theory also emphasizes that group members cannot base their writing on a set of rules that will produce an effective document. These conventions could be used as a useful background knowledge (previous experience with writing similar documents) only.

Summary of the paralogic hermeneutic approach
The paralogic hermeneutic approach represents a very different look at professional communication. It differs from the social constructionist and ideologic approaches on fundamental issues of interpretation and communication emphasizing the external and uncodifiable (non-systematic) nature of communication process.

Assessment and Directions for Future Research
The social constructionist theory has contributed a lot to the field of professional communication studies. As a result there is a widened research agenda in professional communication that includes qualitative and quantitative studies of the organizational and classroom contexts in which writing occur (Thralls & Blyler, 1993, p. 141).

The social constructionist theory has also helped to establish professional communication within a larger field of cultural studies thus linking professional communication to other disciplines.
Ideologic and paralogic hermeneutic approaches have contributed to the discussions of social theory consequently deepening our understanding of communication as a socially based activity. Both approaches also encouraged us to scrutinize some of the constructionist claims and their implications. The ideologic and paralogic hermeneutic approaches offer important and dramatic directions of future professional communication research.

Summary of Barker, Chapter 4

Introduction
Reference documentation, or support documentation, are the look-up and help parts of a manual. They should be organized in a task-oriented manner, not just alphabetically. When designing reference documentation, it is important to consider the correct form and organization method, as well as the user's needs.

Choose the right form of reference
Different forms of reference documentation include appendices, Readme files, job aids, and innovative forms.

Appendices are sections of a manual containing detailed, technical information. Sections may include error messages, filenames, troubleshooting tips, compatibility information, key combination charts,printer driver charts, or frequently asked questions.

Readme files are text documents containing important initial information, including installation details or tips, information updated or added after the manual was created, new features in an updated program, revision histories, errors, file descriptions, content of directories, and compatibility requirements.

Job aids, or job performance aids, are shortened documentation that help users with basic knowledge to perform tasks more efficiently. Job aids may include keyboard templates, cheat sheets, laminated overview cards, or quick reference cards.

Innovative forms are documentation that are presented in special formats, such as foldouts, posters, and flipcards. The advantages of special formats like flipcards are that they improve readability, contain a lot of information, make information more accessible, and use elements like color to help locate information.

Decide what to include
Reference documentation should include three types of content: commands, interface elements, and terminology.

Commands are the instructions used to work with a program. These include meanings of special function groups, explanations of set commands, definitions of format commands, instructions for using utilities, explanations of toolbars, and definitions of macros.

Interface elements are parts of the screen that are used to interact with the program. Information aobut interface elements may include explanations of menus, definitions of keys, labels of screen regions, and explanations of rulers.

A glossary defines terms used in the manual. Glossaries may defines terms that relate to the software itself or to the subject addressed by the software.

When developing reference documentation, writers should also consider the content to include in each reference entry. They may include conceptual information, structural information, how-to information, or technical information. Conceptual information explains the term and its function. Structural information explains how the term relates to other terms. Technical information describes the programming information related to the command. The content of each reference entry should be based upon the user's needs.

Establish a pattern
Whatever the content of reference entries, the same pattern should be used for each entry. This helps the user to become familiar with the format. Topics included in patterns of reference entries include definitions, explanations, examples, step-by-step directions, and warnings.

Organize the reference section
Decide what organization to use on your own. Make sure to decide something that supports the overall task orientation of the manual. There are two basic choices to use to accomplish this: alphabetical and menu-by-menu.

Alphabetical
This format divides the commands into groups based on the beginning letter of the command, in alphabetical order. You can choose to do this by specific term, or by sections of commands. However, if you choose the latter option, the question becomes how to organize the sections: simple-to-complex or more abstract and concept-oriented.

Glossaries are a type of alphabetical reference, which users appreciate because of the virtue of predictability. Using a glossary emphasizes features over functionality. The glossary also helps the writer by helping to make sure all the features are explained.

Unfortunately, the drawbacks for alphabetical organization outweigh the advantages; the main drawback being that the format doesn’t support the task orientation of the manual.

Menu-by-Menu
This format sets up the references by menus. This allows the writer to arrange the documentation as it appears on the main screen or the menu bar. The organization is almost self-explanatory: a main menu, secondary menu, etc. This format provides a reinforcement of the task orientation between the documentation and the screen.

Show how to use the reference information
In most cases, the reference information shouldn’t include information on how to use it. With multiple, elements, however, the user should be shown the path the writer intends to follow. Usually, this is done with an introductory paragraph that states:

• Who should use the information
• How the writer organized the information
• Elements of each entry
• Relations to other sections of the document

Discussion
Reference documentation is designed to function on the support level of task orientation. There is very little “how-to” information included in this type of documentation. In fact, reference documentation establishes the least engaging relationship with the user.

Understanding the reference user
Reference users do not like to waste time looking things up in help functions or manuals. They also dislike having to leave a screen to search for their information. Well-designed documents will cater to the values of efficiency and immediate usability for these users. As a writer, be sure to establish a pattern and follow it. A good rule to follow: generally, the more structure there is in the information, the more usable the entries are within the document.

Understanding a reference entry
As the writer, look at the idea behind the repeated categories, column heads, or other user-oriented reference elements. These work for the user because each one answers a question the user might have about a function or command. Keep in mind that the elements of a reference entry respond to the needs of the reference user. Each entry should have the following:

• Access information
• Function definition
• Associated commands
• Qualifications/special cases
• Tips

Try to answer these questions for the reference user:

1. How do I get to the function?
2. What does the function do?
3. What other commands do I need to know about?
4. When can I use the function?
5. How do I use the function well?

These elements should do much of the work of establishing the task orientation of a manual.

Please check pages 112-113 for a checklist to evaluate efficiency for a reference document.

(Submitted by Team 1: Beeman/Xiong)

Summary of Chapter 4: What’s the Best Way to Word This?

Chapter 4 provides a good checklist for the document writer when making decisions that should keep the document clear and concise. Campbell offers a cookie-cutter approach with checklists (4-1), numbered lists (4-1 cont’d) and columns (4-11).

She introduces some basic rules and explains the differences between technical and narrative writing. The most important thing to remember as a technical writer is to keep the document concise and clear in order to develop a successful document. Campbell lays out the evolution of writing rules (from “fancy and bulky” to “simple is good.”) and recommends that technical writers cut out any unnecessary verbiage, whenever possible.

There are several things to consider when one is trying to cut down on superfluous words:

• Cut out any words that are redundant and be frugal and concise with word usage
• Avoid pompous, stuffy language
• Write as you would speak to the reader
• Use active voice and present tense.

However, don’t change the meaning of the sentence by taking out words. In order to replace long, redundant words with concise ones, the writer should have a good vocabulary and follow these guidelines (Campbell, p.90ff):

• Say what you mean and mean what you say
• Use specific language
• Be consistent
• Remain correct
• Consider the reader
  o Don’t assume anything
  o Look at the reader’s experience
  o Use jargon carefully
  o Distinguish between users and readers
  o Calculate reading level (see how on p. 124)
  o Word documents carefully.

Campbell suggests that the author use active voice and present tense; in addition, the voice and tense should remain consistent throughout the entire document to maintain clarity and conciseness. The author should avoid using vague terms such as sometimes or the overuse of empty phrases to fill the page.
The author should always remember to keep his/her audience in mind and write at the appropriate reading level. Also, when reading out loud, the document should sound just like spoken words. Campbell provides a list of wordy and redundant phrases (p.115f) and pairs them up with clear and precise alternatives.

One should develop a list of favorite transition phrases, but also be careful to not overuse the same ones. Some transition words are: “also, finally, but, still, as, since…” (p.117). Campbell also provides a list of common problem words that are used in a wrong context sometimes (p.118f).
A more serious and common issue is the misplacement of words within a sentence. Misplacement of words can alter the meaning of the entire sentence, which could be devastating in a procedure. The word “only” is extra tricky and has to be placed with caution at the desired location to highlight the proper word(s).

Campbell offers some practical solutions to alleviate the issue of misplaced words: the author should

• use the S-V-O structure
• break the sentences down into short sentences that begin with an action verb
• keep it simple by using short and easy words
• be very specific and “to the point”, avoiding redundancies or jargon as well as negative wording, “turn off” phrases or misplacement of words.

It’s also a good idea to start a sentence with an action verb and to use one action per step within a procedure. Next, the writer should assign the action to the doer (=subject) and structure the sentence in a way that the most important information is at the beginning and at the end of the sentence. Finally, the writer should choose the right format that is clear and concise.